Li-carbohydrate ke eng, karolo ea lik'habohaedreite 'meleng oa motho

Lik'hemik'hale tsa lisele tse etsang lintho tse phelang li itšetlehile haholo ka palo ea liathomo tsa carbon tse etsang karolo ea 50 lekholong ea boima bo omileng. Liathomo tsa carbon li fumanoa lihlahisoa tse kholo tsa manyolo: liprotheine, nucleic acids, lipids le lik'habohaedreite. Sehlopha sa ho qetela se kenyelletsa metsoako ea khase le metsi e lumellanang le foromo (CH ₂ O) _n , moo n e lekane kapa e fetang e meraro. Ntle le carbon, hydrogen le oksijene, limolek'hule li kenyeletsa liathomo tsa phosphorus, naetrojene, sebabole. Sehloohong sena, re tla ithuta karolo ea lik'habohaedreite 'meleng oa motho, hammoho le likarolo tsa sebopeho sa bona, thepa le mesebetsi.

Kemiso

Sehlopha sena sa metsoako ea likokoana-hloko e arotsoe ka likarolo tse tharo: tsoekere e bonolo (monosaccharides), polymeric e kopantsoe le tlama ea glycosidic - oligosaccharides le li-biopolymers tse nang le boima bo boholo ba li-molecular - polysaccharides. Lintho tsa lihlopha tse ka holimo li fumanoa mefuta e sa tšoaneng ea lisele. Ka mohlala, starch le li-glucose li teng mehahong ea limela, glycogen ho batho ba hepatocyte le marako a lisele tsa li-fungus, chitin ka skeleteng e ka ntle ea arthropods. Lintho tsena tsohle tse ka holimo ke lik'habohaedreite. Karolo ea lik'habohaedreite 'meleng ke bokahohle. Ke tsona tse fanang ka matla bakeng sa pontšo ea bohlokoa ea lisele tsa limela, libaktheria, liphoofolo le batho.

Monosaccharides

Ba na le mokhoa o tloaelehileng oa C _n H _{2 n} O le o arotsoe ka lihlopha ho itšetlehile ka palo ea liathomo tsa carbon ka molek'hule: triose, tetroz, pentose joalo-joalo. Lisele tsa celleleng le cytoplasm, tsoekere e bonolo e na le litokisetso tse peli tsa sebaka: li-cyclic le linear. Ntlheng ea pele, liathomo tsa carbon li kopantsoe ka likamano tsa sigma tse kopantsoeng 'me li etsa maqhubu a koetsoeng, boemong ba bobeli skeleton ea carbon ha e koaloe' me e ka ba le branching. E le hore re tsebe hore na karolo ea lik'habohaedreite 'meleng ke efe, a re ke re hlahlobe se tloaelehileng haholo-pentoses le hexoses.

Isomers: khase le fructose

Ba na le sekheo se tšoanang sa limolek'hule C ₆ H ₁₂ O ₆ , empa mefuta e sa tšoaneng ea limolek'hule. Pejana re se re ntse re bitsa karolo e ka sehloohong ea lik'habohaedreite ka 'mele o phelang - matla. Lintho tse ka holimo li kenngoa ke sele. Ka lebaka leo, matla a lokolloa (17.6 kJ ho tswa ho gram e le 'ngoe ea tsoekere). Ho phaella moo, limolek'hule tse 36 tsa ATP lia kopanngoa. Ho senyeha ha tsoekere ho etsahala mecheng (kristale) ea mitochondria mme ke ketane ea liketso tsa enzymatic - potoloho ea Krebs. Ke khokahanyo ea bohlokoa ka ho fetisisa ho tsebeng tse hlahang liseleng tsohle tsa likokoana-hloko tsa eukaryotic, ntle ho khethollo.

Glucose e boetse e thehoa ka li-myocyte tsa mammalian ka lebaka la marang-rang a mesifa ea mesifa ea sebaka sa glycogen. Nakong e tlang, e sebelisoa e le ntho e senyang habonolo, kaha ho fana ka lisele ka matla ke karolo e ka sehloohong ea lik'habohaedreite 'meleng. Limela li na le li-phototrophs 'me li itšetlehile ka mokhoa o ikemetseng oa ho etsa li-glucose nakong ea li-photosynthesis. Liketso tsena li bitsoa potoloho ea Calvin. Ntho e qalang ke carbon dioxide, 'me ea amohelang ke ribosezodiphosphate. Ho qala ha tsoekere ho hlaha matleng a li-chloroplast. Fructose, e nang le mokhoa o tšoanang oa limolek'hule e le tsoekere, e na le molek'hule sehlopha sa ketone se sebetsang hantle. E monate ho feta glucose, 'me e fumaneha mahe a linotši, hammoho le lero la monokotsoai le litholoana. Kahoo, karolo ea likokoana-hloko ea lik'habohaedreite 'meleng ke haholo-holo ho li sebelisa e le mohloli o matla oa matla.

Karolo ea pentoses lefats'eng

A re luleng ho sehlopha se seng sa monosaccharides - ribose le deoxyribose. Taba ea bona e ikhethang ka lebaka la hore ke karolo ea polymers - nucleic acid. Bakeng sa libōpuoa tsohle, ho kopanyelletsa le mefuta e sa sebetsang ea bophelo, DNA le RNA ke tsona tse ka sehloohong tse jereng tsebo ea lefutso. Ribose e kenngoa limolek'hule tsa RNA, 'me deoxyribose e fumaneha nucleotides ea DNA. Ka lebaka leo, karolo ea likokoana-hloko ea lik'habohaedreite 'meleng oa motho ke hore li kenya letsoho ho thehoa ha lihlopha tsa lefutso - liphatsa tsa lefutso le li-chromosomes.

Mehlala ea pentose e nang le sehlopha sa aldehyde le se tloaelehileng lefatseng la limela ke xylose (e nang le lihlahisoa le peo), alpha-arabinose (e fumanoang ka gomme ea lifate tsa litholoana tsa majoe). Ka hona, kabo le karolo ea likokoana-hloko tsa lik'habohaedreite 'meleng oa limela tse phahameng li lekaneng haholo.

Oligosaccharides ke eng

Haeba lihlahisoa tsa limolek'hule tsa monosaccharides, ka mohlala, tse kang khase kapa fructose, li tlameletsoe ke lilekane tsa covalent, ebe li-oligosaccharides - lik'habohaedreite tsa polym e thehoa. Karolo ea lik'habohaedreite 'meleng oa limela le liphoofolo li fapane. Sena ke 'nete haholo-holo ka li-disaccharides. Tse tloaelehileng haholo har'a tsona ke sucrose, lactose, maltose le trehalose. Kahoo, sucrose, ho seng joalo e bitsoang lehlaka kapa tsoekere e tsoekere, e na le limela ka mokhoa oa tharollo 'me e bolokoa lihlahong tsa tsona tsa motso kapa limela. Ka lebaka la hydrolyse, li-molecule le li-molecule tsa fructose li thehoa. Tsoekere ea tsoekere, lactose, ke ea liphoofolo. Ho batho ba bang, ho hloka mamello ho ntho ena ho amahanngoa le boikaketsi ba enzyme lactase, e arohanang tsoekere ea lebese ho galactose le glucose. Karolo ea lik'habohaedreite ke ea bohlokoa. Ka mohlala, trehalose disaccharide, e nang le litlhaka tse peli tsa tsoekere, ke karolo ea hemolymph ea li-crustaceans, likokoana-hloko, likokoanyana. E boetse e hlaha ka liseleng tsa li-fungus le tse ling tsa algae.

Mofuta o mong o sa hlakoleheng, maltose, kapa tsoekere ea malt, o na le lithollo tsa rye kapa harese ha li ntse li mela, ke molek'hule e nang le litlhaka tse peli tsa tsoekere. E thehoa ka lebaka la ho senyeha ha setlama sa meroho kapa sa liphoofolo. Ka maleng a mangata a batho le liphoofolo tse phefolang, maltose e khomaretsoe ke ketso ea enzyme e bitsoang maltase. Haeba e le sieo ka lero la pancreatic, ho kula ho hlaha ka lebaka la ho hloka mamello ho lijo tsa glycogen kapa starch ea meroho. Tabeng ena, sebelisa lijo tse khethehileng mme u eketsa lijo tsa enzyme ka boeona.

Lik'habohaedreite tse rarahaneng ka tlhaho

Li ajoa ka ho pharaletseng haholo, haholo-holo lefatsheng la limela, li na le li-biopolymers 'me li na le boima ba limolek'hule tse khōlō. Ka mohlala, starch e lekanang le 800 000, 'me ka cellulose - 1 600 000. Polysaccharides e fapana le ho hlophisoa ha li-monomers, tekanyo ea polymerization, le bolelele ba liketane. Ho fapana le tsoekere e bonolo le li-oligosaccharides tse qhibilihang hantle metsing 'me li na le monate o monate, polysaccharides e na le hydrophobic ebile e se na thuso. Nahana ka karolo ea lik'habohaedreite 'meleng oa motho o sebelisa mohlala oa glycogen - starch ea liphoofolo. E entsoe ka li-glucose 'me e bolokiloe ka hepatocytes le masapo a mesifa a mesifa, moo likahare tsa eona li leng teng ka makhetlo a mabeli ho feta sebete. Ho thehoa ha glycogen ho boetse ho na le lisele tse mafura tse tlaase, li-neurocyte le macrophages. Mofuta o mong oa polysaccharide, starch ea limela, ke sehlahisoa sa li-photosynthesis 'me se thehoa ka limela tse tala.

Ho tloha tšimolohong ea tsoelo-pele ea batho, basebetsi ba ka sehloohong ba starch e ne e le lijalo tsa bohlokoa tsa temo: raese, litapole, poone. E ntse e le motheo oa lijo tsa lijo tse ngata tsa baahi ba Lefatše. Ke kahoo lik'habohaedreite e leng tsa bohlokoa haholo. Karolo ea lik'habohaedreite 'meleng ke, kamoo re bonang kateng, tšebelisong ea bona e le lintho tse entsoeng ka matla a matla le tse potlakileng tsa mali.

Ho na le sehlopha sa polysaccharides bao li-monomers e leng lihlahisoa tsa acaluronic acid. Li bitsoa pectins mme ke lintho tse sebetsang tsa lisele tsa semela. Rind ea liapole, beet makhasi. Lintho tse ling tsa pectin li laola khatello ea methapo ea mafu - turgor. Sebakeng sa indasteri ea li-confectionery, li sebelisoa e le li-gelling agent le thickeners ho hlahisa mefuta e sa tšoaneng ea boleng ba marshmallow le marmalade. Lijo tse nang le phepo e nepahetseng, lisebelisoa tsa lintho tse phelang tse khonang ho iketsetsa chefo tse tsoang maleng a maholo li sebelisoa.

Li-glycolipids ke eng

Ena ke sehlopha se thahasellisang sa metsoako e rarahaneng ea lik'habohaedreite le mafura, a leng liphatseng tsa methapo. E na le hlooho le mokokotlo oa liphoofolo tse phefolang. Li-glycolipids li fumanoa hape ka lisele tsa sele. Ka mohlala, libaktheria li kopanela li-intercellular contacts. Tse ling tsa lik'hemik'hale tsena ke li-antigen (lintho tse bonahatsang lihlopha tsa mali tsa systemsteiner system AB0). Lisele tsa liphoofolo, limela le batho, ho phaella ho glycolipids, ho na le limolek'hule tse ikemetseng tsa mafura. Li phethahatsa haholo-holo matla a sebetsang. Ha o arola grama e le 'ngoe ea mafura, ho hlakoloa matla a 38.9 kJ. Lipids li boetse li khetholloa ka mokhoa oa moralo (ke karolo ea lisele tsa sele). Ka hona, mesebetsi ena e etsoa ka lik'habohaedreite le mafura. Karolo ea bona 'meleng ke e phahameng haholo.

Karolo ea lik'habohaedreite le lipids 'meleng

Lisele tsa motho le liphoofolo, ho ka bonoa lipuo tsa lipolisi tsa polysaccharides le mafura, tse hlahang ka lebaka la metabolism. Bo-rasaense, litsebi tsa phepo e nepahetseng li fumane hore ho sebelisoa ho feteletseng ha lijo tsa starchy ho lebisa ho bokelleng mafura. Haeba motho a e-na le mathata a pancreatic ka ho aroloa ha amylase kapa a tsamaisa mokhoa oa ho iphelisa, boima ba oona bo ka eketseha haholo. Ke habohlokoa ho hopola hore lijo tse nang le lik'habohaedreite li arohanngoa haholo-holo ho duodenum ho tsoekere. E kenngoa ke li-capillaries tsa mala a nyenyane a intestinal 'me e kenngoa sebeteng le mesifa ka mokhoa oa glycogen. Ha metabolism e matla haholo 'meleng, ha e ntse e sebetsa ka matla e kenngoa ka matla ho feta. Joale e sebelisoa ke lisele e le lisebelisoa tse matla tsa matla. Tlhahisoleseding ena e sebetsa e le karabo ho potso ea hore na li-carbohydrate li phetha karolo efe 'meleng oa motho.

Bohlokoa ba li-glycoprotein

Lik'hemik'hale tsa sehlopha sena sa dintho li emeloa ke protheine ea phepo ea lik'habohaedreite. Li boetse li bitsoa glycoconjugates. Tsena ke li-antibodies, li-hormone, mehaho ea lisele. Liphuputso tsa morao-rao tsa likokoana-hloko li hlokometse hore haeba li-glycoprotein li qala ho fetola mokhoa oa tlhaho (tlhaho), sena se lebisa tlhokomelong ea maloetse a rarahaneng joaloka asthma, ramatiki ea ramatiki, lefu la kankere. Karolo ea li-glycoconjugates ka cell metabolism e ntle. Kahoo, li-interferons li thibela ho hlahisa likokoana-hloko, li-immunoglobulin li sireletsa 'mele ho likokoana-hloko. Liprotheine tsa mali li boetse li le karolo ea sehlopha sena sa lintho. Li fana ka thepa e sireletsang le e fokolang. Mesebetsi ena e ka holimo e netefatsa hore karolo ea 'mele ea lik'habohaedreite' meleng ke ea bohlokoa le ea bohlokoa haholo.

Hokae le hore na lik'habohaedreite li etsoa joang

Bafani ba ka sehloohong ba tsoekere e bonolo le e rarahaneng ke limela tse tala: algae, spore e phahameng, li-gymnosperms le limela tse lipalesa. Kaofela ha tsona li na le chlorophyll ea pigment ka liseleng. Ke karolo ea methapo ea thylakoids - chloroplast. Rasaense oa Serussia K. A Timiryazev o ile a ithuta mokhoa oa ho etsa li-photosynthesis, ka lebaka la hore na lik'habohaedreite li thehoa joang. Karolo ea lik'habohaedreite 'meleng oa semela ke ho bokella starch ka litholoana, peo le bulbs, e leng litho tsa litholoana. Mechine ea li-photosynthesis e rarahane haholo 'me e na le letoto la liketso tsa enzymatic tse hlahang ka bobeli le lefifing. Glucose e entsoe ka carbon dioxide tlas'a liketso tsa li-enzyme. Likokoana-hloko tsa Heterotrophic li sebelisa limela tse tala e le mohloli oa lijo le matla. Ka hona, dimela ke li-link tsa pele meketeng eohle ea trophic 'me li bitsoa lihlahisoa.

Lisele tsa heterotrophic, lik'habohaedreite li entsoe ka litsela tsa lisebelisoa tse boreleli (agranular) reticulum ea ho qetela. Joale li sebelisoa e le matla le thepa ea kaho. Lisele tsa limela, lik'habohaedreite li tsoela pele ho thehoa mohahong oa Golgi, ebe o tsoela pele ho etsa lerako la selulose ea cellulose. Ha ho etsoa mokhoa oa ho cheka likokoana-hloko, lik'hemik'hale tse nang le lik'habohaedreite li fokotsehile karolong ea molomo le ka mpeng. Liphetoho tse kholo tsa ho senya li etsahala ka duodenum. E pateloa ka lero la pancreatic, e nang le amylase ea enzyme, e arohanang starch ho ea phatla. Joalokaha ho se ho boletsoe, "glucose" e kenngoa ka mali maling a manyenyane 'me e hasana ho pholletsa le lisele. Mona e sebelisoa e le mohloli oa matla le motsoako oa moralo. Sena se hlalosa karolo ea lik'habohaedreite 'meleng.

Mefuta e mengata ea Supramembrane ea lisele tsa heterotrophic

Li tloaelehile bakeng sa liphoofolo le li-mushroom. Lik'hemik'hale le mokhatlo oa limolek'hule oa mehaho ena li emeloa ke metsoako e kang lipids, liprotheine le lik'habohaedreite. Karolo ea lik'habohaedreite 'meleng ke ho kenya letsoho matla a metabolism le mohaho oa kaho. Li lisele tsa motho le liphoofolo ho na le karolo e khethehileng ea mohaho o bitsoang glycocalysis. Sebaka sena se tšesaane se ka holimo se na le li-glycolipids le li-glycoprotein tse kopantsoeng le lesea la cytoplasmic. E fana ka tšebelisano e tobileng ea lisele tse nang le tikoloho e ka ntle. Mona, ho na le maikutlo a ho halefisoa le extracellular digestion. Ka lebaka la lisele tsa bona tsa lik'habohaedreite li kopantsana, li etsa likokoana-hloko. Ketsahalo ena e bitsoa ho khomarela. Hape re phaella ka hore "mehatla" ea limolek'hule tsa khaba-carrate e ka holim'a seleng 'me e lebisetsoa ho metsi a mongobo.

Sehlopha se seng sa likokoana-hloko-li-fungus, le tsona li na le sesebelisoa se seholo se bitsoang cell wall. E akarelletsa tsoekere e rarahaneng - chitin, glycogen. Mefuta e meng ea fungus e boetse e na le lik'habohaedreite tse senyang, mohlala trehalose, e bitsoang tsoekere ea mushroom.

Linthong tse sa hlahisoang ke li-unicellular, tse kang li-ciliates, holim'a metsi - seretse, hape se na le li-complex oogosaccharides tse nang le liprotheine le lipids. Tse ling tsa li-pellicle tse bonolo ka ho fetisisa li fokola ebile ha li kena-kenane le phetoho ka sebōpeho sa 'mele. 'Me ho ba bang e ntse e phalla' me e tiea, joaloka shell, e etsa mosebetsi o sireletsang.

Lisele tsa limela

E boetse e na le lik'habohaedreite tse ngata, haholo-holo cellulose, e bokelloang ka mokhoa oa li-fiber. Mehaho ena e etsa hore masapo a kolobetsoe karolong e 'ngoe ea matšoao. E na le haholo-holo ea oligo le polysaccharides. Mabota a sele a limela a ka hlahisa lignified. Tabeng ena, mekhahlelo pakeng tsa likotlolo tsa cellulose e tletse ka khase e nang le lik'habohaedreite tse ling - lignin. E matlafatsa mesebetsi ea tšehetso ea seleng ea sele. Hangata, haholo-holo limela tse sa pheleng, karolo e ka ntle e nang le selulose e koahetsoe ke mafura a mafura-suberin. E thibela metsi hore a se ke a kena lihlahisoa tsa semela, kahoo lisele tsa motheo li shoa ka potlako 'me li koahetsoe ka pula.

Ho akaretsa se boletsoeng ka holimo, re bona lik'habohaedreite le mafura li amana haufi-ufi leboteng la sele ea limela. Karolo ea bona mmele oa litšoantšo ke ntho e thata ho iphapanyetsa, hobane mehaho ea glycolipid e fana ka tšehetso le mesebetsi e sireletsang. A re ke re hlahlobeng mefuta e fapa-fapaneng ea lik'habohaedreite, sebopeho sa libōpuoa tsa 'muso oa Drobyanka. E akarelletsa prokaryotes, haholo-holo libaktheria. Lerako la sele ea bona le na le lik'habohaedreite - murine. Ho itšetlehile ka sebopeho sa lisebelisoa tsa holim'a metsi, libaktheria li arotsoe ka gram-positive le gram-negative.

Sebopeho sa sehlopha sa bobeli se thata haholo. Libaktheria tsena li na le likarolo tse peli: polasetiki le tse thata. Ea pele e na le mucopolysaccharides, mohlala, murine. Limolek'hule tsa lona li shebahala joaloka mehaho e meholo e meholo e etsang sophole e potolohileng seleng ea baktheria. Karolo ea bobeli e na le peptidoglycan, setsi sa polysaccharides le liprotheine.

seleng ea leboteng lipopolysaccharides lumella libaktheria ho khomarela ka tieo substrates tse sa tšoaneng, tse kang leino enamel kapa lera eukaryotic seleng. Ho phaella moo, glycolipids kgothaletsa mamarello ea lisele baktheria mong ho e mong. Ka tsela eo thehoa, ke mohlala, streptococci ketane lesihla staphylococci, ho feta moo, mefuta e meng ea prokaryotes na eketsehileng mucosa - peplos. E na le ka sebopeho lona le polysaccharides le habonolo timetsoa ke mahlaseli a thata kapa ke ho kopana le lik'hemik'hale tse itseng tse kang lithibela-mafu.